Millions of short-lived solar energy devices are being sold to households across sub-Saharan Africa each year as a strategy to increase access to electricity. However, the current lack of infrastructure to safely manage the resulting toxic waste flow raises significant environmental, human health, and social justice concerns. Here, Dr Christopher Kinally and Dr Alejandro Gallego Schmid explore the overlooked risks of improperly managed toxic waste from solar electricity access projects, highlighting the urgent need for procedural and legislative interventions.

• The private off-grid solar market is successfully delivering electricity access through renewable energy technologies to millions of homes across sub-Saharan Africa.
• Current waste management practices for the lead-acid batteries used in these technologies were found to release kilograms of lead pollution: the equivalent of more than 100 times the lethal oral dose of lead released from one battery.
• Safe waste management solutions require procedural change from energy access project funders, investment in profitable battery recycling plants and effective enforcement of hazardous waste legislation.

The private market for off-grid solar electrification technologies has rapidly increased since 2010, driven by investment from energy companies in the Global North and supported by international development agencies and by international aid funding. Endorsed and adopted into national electrification strategies by governments across sub-Saharan Africa, the off-grid solar market is now projected to deliver electricity access to hundreds of millions of people by 2030.

However, off-grid solar technologies predominantly rely on inexpensive and short-lived lead-acid batteries containing kilograms of lead – a potent neurotoxin. Meanwhile, the lack of physical and legislative infrastructure to safely manage waste from electronic products is an established issue posing significant health and environmental risks across sub-Saharan Africa. Nonetheless, the issue of how to manage the rapidly growing toxic waste flow from off-grid solar technologies continues to be overlooked in the delivery of electricity access initiatives.

Toxic pollution from electricity access initiatives in Malawi

Our research at The University of Manchester investigated the current waste management practices for off-grid solar devices in Malawi. Household-scale off-grid solar energy systems (solar home systems) were found to have high rates of failure. Lead-acid batteries, the most affordable battery technology, often fail within a year accelerated by improper solar home system design and usage practices, which results in a substantial battery waste flow.

In the absence of formal waste management infrastructure, these solar home system batteries are being recycled and refurbished by informal technicians on busy market streets in off-grid communities. Lead-acid battery cells are crushed, melted over cooking stoves, and improvised battery cells are then fabricated by hand. Our recent study found that these informal refurbishing practices can release more than 3.5 kg of lead pollution from one solar home system battery: equivalent to more than 100 times the lethal oral dose of lead, released into densely populated communities.

The informal lead recycling industry previously focused on recovering valuable lead from automotive batteries. Now, ambitious targets for the deployment of off-grid solar technologies are adding to the toxic battery waste flow. To date, the health impacts of informal battery recycling have been overlooked, meanwhile, the symptoms of acute lead poisoning are unspecific and can easily be mistaken for other common diseases across the region like cholera, meningitis, and malaria. An isolated case study in Dakar, Senegal, attributed the previously misdiagnosed deaths of 18 children to lead poisoning from a nearby informal lead-acid battery recycling operation.

As a neurotoxin, very low levels of lead exposure are known to permanently impact brain development. Informal lead-acid battery recycling is recognised as a key driver of lead exposure, and UNICEF has estimated that globally, 800 million children have lead poisoning. This widespread child brain poisoning from lead exposure is estimated to cost Africa $134.7 billion every year (equivalent to 4% of its GDP) from the loss of economic productivity, and is estimated to cost Malawi twice as much as the international aid received each year.

Avoiding health burdens from off-grid solar

Safe and well-regulated lead-acid battery recycling is essential to mitigate the health risks currently posed by both the private off-grid solar market and automotive battery waste. Fortunately, formal lead-acid battery recycling is an established and highly profitable industry in the Global North. However, achieving safe lead-acid battery recycling across sub-Saharan Africa needs an integrated approach, delivering: the enforcement of hazardous waste legislation and international treaties, procedural change in the international funding and local delivery of solar initiatives, investments in formal recycling infrastructure in Africa, and collaborating with the informal economies that prevail in off-grid communities to effectively collect waste.

Hazardous waste legislation and international treaties

With the low awareness of the health and economic burdens posed, governments across sub-Saharan Africa are yet to regulate the toxic informal lead-acid battery recycling industry. In 2020, the High Court of Kenya ordered the state and private companies to compensate communities for health damages caused by improperly regulated lead smelters. Governments in sub-Saharan Africa should be encouraged to develop a deeper understanding of the societal impacts of lead poisoning and to proactively work with neighbouring countries and international partners to bring regulated lead recycling practices into effect to avoid litigation.

The Basel Convention, an international treaty to control the movement of hazardous waste, depends on governments to self-regulate, which has resulted in inconsistent and ineffective enforcement; a more unified and proactive approach should be considered by the UN. Specifically, the transportation of lead and battery scrap across borders should only be permitted with regulated permits, effectively enforced with a consistent framework across sub-Saharan Africa. This will enable significant progress to be made across sub-Sharan Africa to prevent the unregulated export and import of lead and lead-acid battery scrap, restrict the toxic informal recycling industry and protect nations in the region from being exploited by foreign actors.

Investments in recycling infrastructure

Formal lead-acid battery recycling is a profitable industry that can mitigate the health and economic costs posed by current recycling practices. Governments in sub-Saharan Africa can capitalise on the multiple benefits of this industry and establish battery recycling infrastructure by creating a favourable economic landscape to encourage investment from private battery recycling companies. This can be achieved through economic polices including tax breaks and subsidies that attract inward investment and allow for lead recycling initiatives to be scaled up.

With the cost of lead poisoning exceeding the Official Development Assistance funding received in many countries, the UN and its Regional Centers should also consider financially supporting lead recycling initiatives.

Procedural change in funding from the UK and Global North

The UK can demonstrate global leadership by mandating energy access projects that receive public funding include plans for safe and sustainable waste management – helping to establish safe waste management polices receiving government development aid.

It would be impactful for the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office to host a summit with governments across sub-Sharan Africa to establish an agreed approach to addressing lead-acid battery waste.